Drug Abuse in Adolescents Free Essays

Youthfulness is a basic phase of progress and disarray, brimming with guarantees and difficulties for adolescents and guardians the same. They experience critical changes in science, intellectual limit and mental self portrait. At the point when they display complex issues, for example, maltreatment of liquor and other medication substance, reprobate conduct, genuine sorrow or side effects of psychosis would require family backing and direction like never before (Snyder, 1998). We will compose a custom article test on Medication Abuse in Adolescents or on the other hand any comparable theme just for you Request Now The reasons for sedate maltreatment and fixation were looked for in characteristics of the individual and verifiably have included such things as good disappointment, mental trouble, and hereditary aura. Methamphetamine, for instance, can cause crazy hallucinations including murderous or self-destructive musings. Long haul utilization of the medication can prompt mind harm, comparative with Alzheimer’s malady, stroke, or epilepsy. Cocaine, then again, could make difficulties heart, lungs, gastrointestinal and sensory system. This would additionally prompt reprobate practices, school dropouts and commitment to pre-marriage sex that would influence the youngster him/herself however his family, companions and the general public too. Over the top family clashes, conjugal disagreement, verbal, physical and sexual maltreatment, early uncertain connection, poor parent/youngster connections, absence of parental holding, poor family the executives, absence of child rearing aptitudes and useless consideration giving put weight on adolescents which makes them helpless that could prompt medication misuse. The media, online worlds, peer pressure are likewise critical variables that could impact youngsters getting include in medicate misuse (Ashery, et al, 2000). Family-Centered treatment is offered in numerous outpatient settings in sedate maltreatment treatment fields. These incorporate open private association with private projects conveying administrations under awards or agreements with Federal, State, or neighborhood governments. In these outpatient settings, families are frequently remembered for instructive projects and individual and multifamily bunch treatment. In inpatient settings, young people have generally been confined from their families, regularly just being permitted to see them during brief visiting hours. When the pre-adult is admitted to an inpatient office, the family is engaged with numerous treatment exercises, for example, instructive introduction and individual and multifamily bunch treatment. Different settings are day treatment or halfway hospitalization projects and assortment of network based self improvement gatherings that focus on the groups of pained youths (Snyder, 1998). Medication maltreatment of teenagers can be forestalled through solid monetary base, accomplishment direction, job adoptability, otherworldliness, more distant family securities, racial pride, regard and love, creativity, network inclusion and family solidarity (Ashery, et al, 2000). Reference: Rebecca S. Ashery, Elizabeth B. Robertson, Karol L. Kumpfer (2000). Medication Abuse Prevention Through Interventions. DIANE Publishing Snyder, Wendy (1998). Enabling Families, Helping Adolescents: Family-Centered Treatment of Adolescents with Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Problems  DIANE Publishing Step by step instructions to refer to Drug Abuse in Adolescents, Papers

Gilgameshs downfall Essay Example For Students

Gilgameshs defeat Essay In The Epic of Gilgamesh the primary character, Gilgamesh, is looking for eternality. This need is realized by profound sentiments held by Gilgamesh for his dead companion Enkidu. From this, Gilgamesh ends up being terrified of passing on. This dread pushes Gilgamesh to look for the intensity of undying life, which is accepted to be held uniquely by ladies as a result of the way that they can replicate. This takes him on a long and tedious excursion to a land where no human has gone previously. The hunt by Gligamesh is energized by the craving to have an impact in proliferation. His excursion starts at Mount Mashu, the mountain which portrays a lady in the part that her paps reach down to the black market. Alluding to two women’s breast’s hanging down. Before he may enter the mountain, he meets two half female, half mythical serpent figures guarding the passage. They start inquiring as to why he has come; No man/conceived of lady has done what you have/asked, no human m an has ever gone into the/mountain. This mountain is forbidden to mortal creatures, he ought not be there Gilgamesh is alloud in and experiences twelve associations of obscurity before he arrives at the brilliant nursery of the goddesses. After showing up there he is welcomed by Shamash, the Sun God, who lets him know, You will never discover the/life for which you are looking. This miracles Gilgamesh since he has gone so far to now simply rest and let the earth spread my head until the end of time? From leaving Shamash, Gilgamesh is sent to see Siduri. Close to the ocean she lives, the lady of/the vine, the producer of wine†¦ and she wouldn't like to permit Gilgamesh pass. Gilgamesh begs her that since he has seen her don't let him see passing. She answers, Gilgamesh, where/are you hustling to? You will never find that life for which you are looking. Indeed Gilgamesh hears that what he is searching for doesn't exist. She instructs him to appreciate life to its fullest in light of the fact that that is the thing that a man is there for. That doesn't fulfill Gilgamesh and he wishes to realize where to discover Utnapishtim, the main man with unceasing life. To discover him, Gilgamesh must find Urshanabi, the ship lady. She at that point continues to take him over the Ocean and over the waters of death. So Gilgamesh winds up in Dilmun, where Utnapishtim lives. Utnapishtim inquires as to why he has come. Gilgamesh continues to disclose to Utnapishtim the entire anecdote about Enkidu biting the dust, how far he has voyage, who he has met, lastly that he needs to realize how to become interminable like him. There is no changelessness, Utnapishtim states, It is just the sprite of the/dragonfly who sheds her hatchling and sees the sun in her wonder. This announcement is stating that lone lady live everlastingly through propagation. Utnapishtim keeps on disclosing to Gilgamesh how he arrived and approaches As for you, Gilgamesh,/who will amass the divine beings fo r/your purpose, with the goal that you may find that life for which you are looking? Utnapishtim offers him a test and he should simply keep awake for six days and seven evenings. Gilgamesh can not do it, and he quickly nods off. Utnapishtim wakes him following seven days and advises Urshanabi to take Gilgamesh to be cleaned, at that point send him back to where he originated from. However, before Gilgamesh could leave, Utnapishtim let him know of a plant submerged that would reestablish a keeps an eye on youth. Gilgamesh at that point left to locate this glorious plant before he headed home. He discovered it and carried it with him. Urshanabi and Gilgamesh voyaged far before setting up camp. While halted, Gilgamesh went to go wash in a well. In any case, somewhere down in that well there was a snake. It emerged from the water and grabbed it/away, and promptly it sloughed its/skin and came back to the well. Gilgamesh is left with nothing. The snake was an image of a lady, and now Gi lgamesh see that he can not have the ability to endure everlasting life.In short, Gilgamesh winds up kicking the bucket, similar to all men must do. He discovered that there is no interminable life for men and that ladies are as yet the main immortals on account of generation. .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329 , .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329 .postImageUrl , .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329 .focused content territory { min-stature: 80px; position: relative; } .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329 , .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329:hover , .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329:visited , .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329:active { border:0!important; } .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329 .clearfix:after { content: ; show: table; clear: both; } .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329 { show: square; progress: foundation shading 250ms; webkit-change: foundation shading 250ms; width: 100%; murkiness: 1; progress: haziness 250ms; webkit-change: darkness 250ms; foundation shading: #95A5A6; } .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329:active , .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329:hover { obscurity: 1; change: mistiness 250ms; webkit-change: haziness 250ms; foundation shading: #2C3E50; } .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329 .focused content region { width: 100%; position: relativ e; } .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329 .ctaText { outskirt base: 0 strong #fff; shading: #2980B9; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: intense; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; content improvement: underline; } .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329 .postTitle { shading: #FFFFFF; text dimension: 16px; text style weight: 600; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; width: 100%; } .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329 .ctaButton { foundation shading: #7F8C8D!important; shading: #2980B9; fringe: none; outskirt span: 3px; box-shadow: none; text dimension: 14px; textual style weight: striking; line-tallness: 26px; moz-fringe sweep: 3px; content adjust: focus; content enhancement: none; content shadow: none; width: 80px; min-stature: 80px; foundation: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/modules/intelly-related-posts/resources/pictures/straightforward arrow.png)no-rehash; position: supreme; right: 0; top: 0; } .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329:hover .ctaButton { foundation shading: #34495E!important; } .u725 7e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329 .focused content { show: table; stature: 80px; cushioning left: 18px; top: 0; } .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329-content { show: table-cell; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; cushioning right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-adjust: center; width: 100%; } .u7257e3314fa182e55d396be5cc97a329:after { content: ; show: square; clear: both; } READ: The glass managerie Essay

How Long Does Tramadol Stay in Your System

How Long Does Tramadol Stay in Your System Addiction Drug Use Opioids Print How Long Does Tramadol Stay in Your System? Tramadol in Your Blood, Urine, Hair, Saliva By Buddy T facebook twitter Buddy T is an anonymous writer and founding member of the Online Al-Anon Outreach Committee with decades of experience writing about alcoholism. Learn about our editorial policy Buddy T Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on August 05, 2016 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on February 10, 2020 Verywell / Cindy Chung More in Addiction Drug Use Opioids Cocaine Heroin Marijuana Meth Ecstasy/MDMA Hallucinogens Prescription Medications Alcohol Use Addictive Behaviors Nicotine Use Coping and Recovery In This Article Table of Contents Expand Effects Duration Factors That Affect Detection Time Elimination Symptoms of Overdose Getting Help View All Back To Top Tramadol is a synthetic opioid analgesic medication used to treat moderate to moderately severe pain. It is available under brand names including ConZip, FusePaq Synapryn, Rybix, Ryzolt, and Ultram. Knowing how long it stays in your system can help you understand the precautions needed to avoid drug interactions and possible overdose. There is a special concern with this medication being used for children, so discuss this with your doctor. Like Xanax (alprazolam) and Valium (diazepam), Tramadol is classified as a Schedule IV drug in the United States, meaning it has a low potential for addiction and abuse, even at prescribed doses, though addiction is still possible. Tramadol is not screened for on standard 5-panel and 10-panel drug tests, however, it will show up on other drug tests for prescription pain medications. How Long Does Tramadol Stay in Your System? Blood: Up to 48 hoursUrine: 24 to 72 hoursSaliva: Up to 48 hoursHair: 30 to 90 days How Long Does It Take to Feel the Effects? Tramadol works on the pain receptors in your brain and throughout your central nervous system, inhibiting the reuptake of two neurotransmitters: serotonin and norepinephrine. The pain relief effects begin about an hour after a dose and peaks in two to four hours. There are also extended relief versions of tramadol that dispense dosages in phases over a longer time frame. This means that a single extended relief pill acts longer in your system. While its active, tramadol depresses breathing and causes the pupils to constrict. It reduces motility in your digestive system so food takes longer to digest and you are likely to experience constipation. It dilates your blood vessels, and you may have flushing, itching, sweating, red eyes, and experience dizziness or faintness when you get up after having been lying down. How Long Does Tramadol Last? According to the FDA, the half-life of tramadol in the blood is between five and nine hours, and even longer for people who have been taking multiple doses. The half-life is the time it takes half of a dose to be eliminated by the body. Complete elimination takes about five to six times as long as the half-life. Tramadol is broken down in the liver and excreted mostly by the kidneys in the urine. About 30% of the dose is excreted unchanged, 60% excreted as identified metabolites, including M1 and N-desmethyl tramadol, and 10% excreted as unidentified metabolites. Blood Blood tests can detect tramadol most quickly after its been used, typically up to 48 hours after last use. Urine Tramadol is typically detectable in urine for one to four days. Because the drugs metabolites are eliminated through urine, a urine test typically shows a higher concentration of tramadol than other drug test types. Saliva Tramadol can be detected in saliva for up to 48 hours after the last use. Hair A hair follicle test can detect tramadol in your system for 30 to 90 days. False Positive Testing While there arent many substances that can trigger a false positive for tramadol, tramadol and its metabolites can trigger a false positive for other substances such as PCP and buprenorphine. As a result, you will want to alert your testing facility in advance that you are prescribed tramadol. Factors That Affect Detection Time About 7% of people are poor metabolizers of tramadol, due to reduced activity of the CYP2D6 isoenzyme of cytochrome P-450. For people in this population, it takes significantly longer to break down tramadol as well as tricyclic antidepressants and other drugs. As a result, they have a more active drug in their bloodstream for a longer time. These people are at risk if taking other medications that further reduce the actions of the enzymes that break down tramadol. In addition, there are other factors that can affect the drugs detection time, including: Dosage: Higher doses will take longer to metabolize.Frequency of use: Tramadol accumulates in the body as more doses are taken; if some of the previous doses havent completely broken down, your body will likely take longer to metabolize additional doses.Metabolism: A slower metabolic rate will increase the amount of time it takes tramadol to break down; activity level, diet, and body composition can all affect metabolism.Reduced kidney or liver function: Impairment of the organs the body uses to get rid of waste will increase the amount of time tramadol stays in your body.Age: People over the age of 75 metabolize more slowly, may take additional medications that affect metabolism, and are also at a higher risk for impaired kidney or liver function. All of these factors usually result in a slower metabolism for older people. Drops vs. Injections vs. Pills The pill form of tramadol is absorbed slower by the body as well as excreted more slowly than either the drop or injected form. How to Get Tramadol Out of Your System Contrary to popular belief, exercising or drinking water will not help you metabolize tramadol significantly faster to beat a drug test. The only way to get tramadol out of your system is to stop taking the drug and allow your body time to process and eliminate it. If you suspect an overdose of tramadol, administering Narcan (naloxone), often available at local health departments as a nasal spray, will inhibit the dangerous effects of too much tramadol on the respiratory system, though it will not speed up the elimination of the tramadol. Keep this in mind as it may be necessary to administer the second dose of naloxone if enough tramadol remains in the body. Symptoms of Overdose To prevent an overdose of tramadol, you must only take the amount prescribed as prescribed on the schedule prescribed. It is dangerous to crush or cut extended relief tablets or capsules as doing so will release a larger dose all at once. Symptoms of a tramadol overdose can include: Constricted pupilsBlue or purplish-black fingernails and lipsPulse (heartbeat) that is slow, erratic, or not detectableSlow, shallow, erratic, or stopped breathingUnconsciousnessMaking a snore-like gurgling noise or choking soundsNon-responsive to outside stimulusMuscle weaknessCold, clammy skinSeizures Tramadol interacts with many other medications, which can lead to life-threatening health concerns including breathing problems, sedation, and coma. Of special concern are interactions with benzodiazepines, monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), and alcohol. Discuss all medications you take, plan to take, or plan to stop taking with your doctor so these can be screened and adjusted to prevent a dangerous interaction. Do not drink alcohol, take medication containing alcohol, or use street drugs while taking tramadol or you risk a serious, possibly life-threatening interaction. As with the case of all opioid drugs, tramadol overdoses can be treated with  Narcan (naloxone)  if they are detected early enough. If you think someone has overdosed, call 911 immediately, administer naloxone, and begin CPR if possible. Understanding Opioid Overdoses Getting Help If you stop using it suddenly, you may experience withdrawal symptoms such as anxiety, muscle aches and pain, excessive sweating, and insomnia. Tramadol withdrawal can begin one to two days after the  last dose, peak after day three, and subside within one to two weeks. Your doctor will give an appropriate discontinuation schedule when its time to stop using tramadol to avoid these symptoms. Tramadol carries a high risk of dependence, even when taken as prescribed. Treatment options for  opiate use disorder  include: Medication-assisted treatment (MAT) with  buprenorphine  or methadoneHarm reduction  psychotherapyPrograms designed to help get you off of opiates in a sustainable way When transitioning off of opioids like tramadol, your doctor may prescribe other medications to ease withdrawal symptoms and prevent breakthrough pain. If you want to stop taking tramadol, start by talking to your doctor for advice and assistance or contact the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) at 1-800-662-4357. They also have a free,  online tool  to find treatment options in your area.

Analysis Of Walt Disney s If You Can Dream It - 902 Words

Walt Disney, â€Å"If you can dream it, you can do it.† Who was he? Well he was an American business magnate, cartoonist, animator, voice actor, and film producer. He is also regarded as the culture icon, who shaped America’s entertainment and animation industry. Walt Disney is the reason why my childhood was filled with happiness, because he created my favorite cartoon characters that I still love to watch to this day. To better understand who Walt Disney was I will be talking about problems that he faced and some accomplishments he made. Transition Statement: To begin with, I am going briefly discuss some problems Disney faced is his early life. Body A. According to, Biography.com being one of five children it was difficult for his father to make a living. This caused his family to have to relocate at least twice in his young life. Additionally, History.com informed that the family first had to move to Kansas City from Marceline after they sold the farm in 1910. There, Disney s father obtained a daily paper route and for the following six years Walt assisted with the deliveries, working before and then after school and on weekends. In 1917, his father sold the paper route and moved the family back to Chicago (History.com, 2015). B. Fast forward a few years at the point when Disney was 16, he dropped out of school to join the army however was rejected for being underage. Instead, he joined the Red Cross and was sent to France for a year to drive an emergency vehicle.Show MoreRelatedWalt Disney s Core Competency2062 Words   |  9 PagesWalt Disney The Walt Disney is a world leading company for the entertainment of all especially families; it is also a media enterprise with different business segments. The main five business segments are studio entertainment, parks and resorts, media networks, consumer products and interactive media. Walt Disney’s original main competence was only animated movies and cartoons. By combining Imagineering with engineering Disney’s company reached supreme success with the formation of the first fullRead MoreThe Walt Disney Company4305 Words   |  18 PagesThe Walt Disney Company; A Dream and a Mouse Abstract Throughout its history, the Walt Disney Company has seen both struggle and success. Today the company continues to expand both globally and within its current business segments with new projects and acquisitions. In a struggling economy that has lent to the fall of other major companies, the importance of realistic and useful information is necessary to estimate the current and future financial stability for a company’s investorsRead MoreWalt Disney : The Organization Background Essay1881 Words   |  8 PagesThe Walt Disney Comapany The Organization Background The Walt Disney Company, allong with its partners and branches, is a entertaiment and media corporation that targets all types of families all over the world. Divided in five segments: media networks, parks and resorts, studio entertainment, consumer products and interactive media. It was born in the early 1920’s as a simple cartoon studio, till what is today, a global corporation that provides the best entertainment for the youngest to the oldestRead MoreOrganizational Profile Of Walt Disney Company2296 Words   |  10 PagesOrganizational Profile of the Walt Disney Company: Beyond the Disney?s Magical Experience Pedro E. Cruzfeliciano University of Louisville Dr. Carpenter ELFH 490: Leadership and Management May 29, 2015 1 Running Head: ORGANIZATIONAL PROFILE Introduction In this paper, we will explore the magical experience of Walt Disney Company through the structure and symbolic frames based on the Bolman and Deal?s individual lens. The structuralRead MoreOrganizational Excellence And Change At Walt Disney Company2750 Words   |  11 PagesExcellence and Change July 5, 2016 Unit 6: Team Assignment 1 Professor Barbara-Leigh Tonelli Introduction The Walt Disney Company plays and important role in the lives of many, through the services provided and a place where many people are employed. Understanding overall group dynamics are vital for continued improvement. It is important to note that group processes currently in place can influence individual behaviors thus resulting in the overall performance at the group level. Developing a favorableRead MoreWorlds Most Powerful Brand Product Mix1968 Words   |  8 PagesAnalysis and Environment Strengths World’s Most Powerful Brand Product Mix Multi-Cultural Strong Innovation Weakness High Cost Structure High Employment Acquisitions Opportunities Increase in Global Expansion Emerging markets Threats Fierce Competition Intellectual Property Rights Economy Changing Consumer interest Strengths 1. World’s Most Powerful Brand- 93 years in the making, through tv, movies, theme parks, music, and sports there is very few places in the world you can go that youRead MoreWalt-Disney World Internship Report7881 Words   |  32 PagesTechnology Faculty of International Tourism Internship Report â€Å"Dreams Come True† Exploration in Disney Student Name: Student Number: Internship Sponsor: Li, Danping 0609853G-B111-0073 The Walt Disney World Resort Internship Duration: Aug, 10th, 2008 ~ Jan, 16th, 2009 Submission Date: Apr, 30th, 2009 Brief Description of My Internship Fantastic memories of 169 days living in America, almost six months working in Walt Disney World offers an unforgettable experience in my personal life andRead MoreCompare/Contrast Cinderella Essay1261 Words   |  6 PagesEssay â€Å"The Walt Disney Company is a powerful economic and cultural phenomenon known throughout the United States and the world as a provider of family entertainment (Maltin, 1, 308). Its media and entertainment holdings establish it as a central communicator in contemporary life. As such, it provides many of the first narratives children use to learn about the world† (Ward, 1). Disney has always been family oriented making it one of the main attractions of reading something Disney. They alwaysRead MoreAthletic Shoe and Nike4456 Words   |  18 PagesNIKE 1 Nike has always remained on the preference list of athletes and  athletic  footwear  was indeed the first category of products launched by the company more than 30 years ago. Today, you can see the craze for its products, not only among athletes, but also among golfers and other sportspeople. Apart from that,  Nike  shoes  and other accessories have also become the favorite  fashion  products for teenagers. Thus, fashion, elegance and achievements are some of the associated attributes of NikeRead MoreThe Walt Disney Company Report15335 Words   |  62 PagesCompany Research Paper The Walt Disney Company Pranay Kumar George Batah Shuxian Shen Sheng Hao Koo â€Å"We have complied with university honor code in completion of this assignment and I attest that this work is ours and ours alone.† Professor Suzanne Weiss Contents 1. Executive Summary 2. Company Background 3. Management 4. Situation Analysis 5. Ethics and Responsibility 6. Human Resource 7. Globalization 8. Operation and Production

America Is The Melting Pot Of The World - 848 Words

There are a lot of different influences on the world that we live in today, especially in America. America is the melting pot of the world. People from all over the world come here to live, so we have adapted to different cultures all around the world. One of the biggest influences in our society today is Greece and Rome. They influenced our alphabet, language, entertainment, laws, architect, religion, and calendar. The way Americans communicate today is all thanks to the Romans. Our alphabet comes from the Roman alphabet. We have change some things in the alphabet of course like there is no â€Å"J† in the Roman alphabet, but there is in the American alphabet. A lot of our language comes from Rome and Greece. The founding fathers could read both Latin and Greek and knew Greek and Roman literature and history fairly well. John Adams read Cicero, Tacitus, and many others in Latin. He also read Plato and Thucydides in original Greek, which he considered the supreme language. Ità ¢â‚¬â„¢s obvious that we don’t speak Latin but many things are America is named after Romans. For Example: Cincinnati is named after former Roman general, Cincinnatus. The calendar comes from the Romans. It comes from the Roman word kalendarium. Our months are from the Roman calendar as well. August is named after Augustus, who was the founder of the Roman Empire. Another thing that Rome had a lot of influence in is our government. Romans were the first to have a republic and a senate, which America has nowShow MoreRelatedAmerica Is Considered The Melting Pot Of The World. This1342 Words   |  6 Pages America is considered the melting pot of the world. This diverse nation is filled with many different ethnicities, cultures, and people with different backgrounds. It is for that exact reason why one is able to find just about every type of food, no matter what culture, in America. Interviewing two immigrants has allowed me to grasp the fact that these different cultures is what makes the United States of America so great! I first started off by interviewing my girlfriend, Amanda, who is an immigrantRead MoreAmerica Is A Melting Pot Of Heritages And Nationalities From All Around The World1666 Words   |  7 Pages The United States of America is considered a melting pot of heritages and nationalities from all around the world. There is no official language, and no one culture all citizens abide by. Despite the fact that everyone in this country is different from one another, there is still a constant uniform citizen that has a more favorable position. This citizen is white, English-speaking, and somehow always in the front of the public sphere. In the recent years, there has been an increasingly dominantRead MoreAmerica is known for being a melting pot of cultures throughout the world that came together in our1400 Words   |  6 PagesAmerica is known for being a melting pot of cultures throughout the world that came together in our society in a q uest for freedoms that may not have existed in other countries of the world. Migration into America has occurred throughout its existence as a country, but movements from specific parts of the world have come in waves over time. As those groups came into America, they have brought their own ideas, religions, social customs and way of living with them. As America has become more multiculturalRead MoreThe United States Of America Is Considered A Melting Pot Of Heritages And Nationalities From All Around The World1689 Words   |  7 PagesMichalina Skwiot Dr. Shahrokhi SW215 Being Human 21 April 2016 Citizenship The United States of America is considered a melting pot of heritages and nationalities from all around the world. There is no official language, and no one culture all citizens abide by. Despite the fact that everyone in this country is different from one another, there is still a constant uniform citizen that has a more favorable position. This citizen is white, English-speaking, and somehow always in the front of theRead MoreAmerican Stereotypes of Immigrants Essay881 Words   |  4 Pages America was widely known as a â€Å"melting pot† of sorts for many generations. The country earned its title by accepting immigrants of various cultures and molding, or melting, them into the American lifestyle. However, the â€Å"melting pot† idea of America is starting to dissipate. According to a Newsweek Poll on the public, â€Å"only 20 percent still think America is a melting pot† (Morganthau and Wolfberg, par.4). As more Americans push away immigrants and create stereotypes against said immigrantsRead MoreAmeric The American Dream936 Words   |  4 PagesPeople from other nations come to the United States of America as a sign of change in their lives, but some people don’t agree with all nations are melted into a new race of men, whose labors and future generations will one day cause great change in the world. Many people come to America to live as a new person and in a new life. In the 1770s people from Europe and they had risked their lives just to get to the New World, which was America. 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Living in border states such asRead MoreImmigrant Influence On Culture And Society1010 Words   |  5 Pages The United States has been called different terms when describing immigration, the most popular term was â€Å"melting pot†, but lately the more politically correct term is â€Å"salad bowl†. The melting pot better describes American society because the cultures have blended together and became more accepting of each other. The history of immigration in the United States has been greatly shaped by immigrant influence on culture and society, the nation’s fluid immigration laws, and how incoming immigrants

The Information of Different Needs of Different User Groups Free Essays

string(97) " financial performance of the business would normally be considered when making such a decision\." 1 Introduction to accounting Introduction n this opening chapter we begin by considering the role of accounting. We shall see that it can be a valuable tool for decision-making. We shall identify the main users of accounting and financial information and discuss the ways in which this information can improve the quality of decisions that those users make. We will write a custom essay sample on The Information of Different Needs of Different User Groups or any similar topic only for you Order Now We shall then go on to consider the particular role of financial accounting and the differences between financial and management accounting. Since this book is concerned with accounting and financial decision making for private-sector businesses, we shall also examine the main forms of business enterprise and consider what are likely to be the key objectives of a business. I Learning outcomes When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: ? explain the nature and roles of accounting; ? identify the main users of financial information and discuss their needs; ? distinguish between financial and management accounting; ? explain the purpose of a business and describe how businesses are organised and structured. 2 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING What is accounting? ? Accounting is concerned with collecting, analysing and communicating ? nancial information. The purpose is to help people who use this information to make more informed decisions. If the ? nancial information that is communicated is not capable of improving the quality of decisions made, there would be no point in producing it. Sometimes the impression is given that the purpose of accounting is simply to prepare ? nancial reports on a regular basis. While it is true that accountants undertake this kind of work, it does not represent an end in itself. The ultimate purpose of the accountant’s work is to give people better ? nancial information on which to base their decisions. This decision-making perspective of accounting ? ts in with the theme of this book and shapes the way in which we deal with each topic. Who are the users of accounting information? For accounting information to be useful, the accountant must be clear for whom the information is being prepared and for what purpose the information will be used. There are likely to be various groups of people (known as ‘user groups’) with an interest in a particular organisation, in the sense of needing to make decisions about it. For the typical private-sector business, the more important of these groups are shown in Figure 1. 1. Take a look at this ? gure and then try Activity 1. 1. Figure 1. 1 Main users of financial information relating to a business Several user groups have an interest in accounting information relating to a business. The majority of these are outside the business but, nevertheless, have a stake in it. This is not meant to be an exhaustive list of potential users; however, the groups identified are normally the most important. W HO ARE THE USERS OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION? Activity 1. 1 Ptarmigan Insurance plc (PI) is a large motor insurance business. Taking the user groups identified in Figure 1. 1, suggest, for each group, the sorts of decisions likely to be made about PI and the factors to be taken into account when making these decisions. Your answer may be along the following lines: User group Decision Customers Whether to take further motor policies with PI. This might involve an assessment of PI’s ability to continue in business and to meet their needs, particularly in respect of any insurance claims made. Competitors How best to compete against PI or, perhaps, whether to leave the market on the grounds that it is not possible to compete profitably with PI. This might involve competitors using PI’s performance in various aspects as a ‘benchmark’ when evaluating their own performance. They might also try to assess PI’s financial strength and to identify significant changes that may signal PI’s future actions (for example, raising funds as a prelude to market expansion). Employees Whether to continue working for PI and, if so, whether to demand higher rewards for doing so. The future plans, profits and financial strength of the business are likely to be of particular interest when making these decisions. Government Whether PI should pay tax and, if so, how much, whether it complies with agreed pricing policies, whether financial support is needed and so on. In making these decisions an assessment of its profits, sales revenues and financial strength would be made. Community Whether to allow PI to expand its premises and/or whether to provide representatives economic support for the business. PI’s ability to continue to provide employment for the community, the extent to which it is likely to use community resources and its likely willingness to help fund environmental improvements are likely to be considered when arriving at such decisions. Investment Whether to advise clients to invest in PI. This would involve an analysts assessment of the likely risks and future returns associated with PI. Suppliers Whether to continue to supply PI and, if so, whether to supply on credit. This would involve an assessment of PI’s ability to pay for any goods and services supplied. Lenders Whether to lend money to PI and/or whether to require repayment of any existing loans. PI’s ability to pay the interest and to repay the principal sum would be important factors in such decisions. Managers Whether the performance of the business needs to be improved. Performance to date would be compared with earlier plans or some other ‘benchmark’ to decide whether action needs to be taken. Managers may also wish to decide whether there should be a change in PI’s future direction. This would involve looking at PI’s ability to perform and at the opportunities available to it. Owners Whether to invest more in PI or to sell all, or part, of the investment currently held. This would involve an assessment of the likely risks and returns associated with PI. Owners may also be involved with decisions on rewarding senior managers. The financial performance of the business would normally be considered when making such a decision. You read "The Information of Different Needs of Different User Groups" in category "Essay examples" Although this answer covers many of the key points, you may have identified other decisions and/or other factors to be taken into account by each group. 3 4 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING The conflicting interests of users We have seen above that each user group looks at a business from a different perspective and has its own particular interests. This means that there is always the risk that the interests of one group will collide with those of another group. Con? ict between user groups is most likely to occur over the way in which the wealth of the business is generated and/or distributed. A good example is the con? ict that may arise between the managers and the owners of the business. Although managers are appointed to act in the best interests of the owners, there is always a danger that they will not do so. Instead, managers may use the wealth of the business to award themselves large pay rises, to furnish large of? ces or to buy expensive cars for their own use. Accounting information has an important role to play in reporting the extent to which various groups have bene? ted from the business. Thus, owners may rely on accounting information to check whether the pay and bene? ts of managers are in line with agreed policy. A further example is the potential con? ict of interest between lenders and owners. There is a risk that the funds loaned to a business will not be used for purposes that have been agreed. Lenders may, therefore, rely on accounting information to check that the funds have been applied in an appropriate manner and that the terms of the loan agreement are not being broken. Activity 1. 2 Can you think of other examples where accounting information may be used to monitor potential conflicts of interest between the various user groups identified? Two possible examples that spring to mind are: ? ? employees (or their representatives) wishing to check that they are receiving a ‘fair share’ of the wealth created by the business and that agreed profit-sharing schemes are being adhered to; overnment wishing to check that the profits made from a contract that it has given to a business are not excessive. You may have thought of other examples. How useful is accounting information? No one would seriously claim that accounting information fully meets all of the needs of each of the various user groups. Accounting is still a developing subject and we still have much to learn about user needs and the ways in which these needs should be met. Nevertheless, the information contained in accounting reports should help users make decisions relating to the business. The information should reduce uncertainty about the ? nancial position and performance of the business. It should help to answer questions concerning the availability of funds to pay owners a return, to repay loans, to reward employees and so on. Typically, there is no close substitute for the information provided by the ? nancial statements. Thus, if users cannot glean the required information from the ? nancial statements, it is often unavailable to them. Other sources of information concerning the ? nancial health of a business are normally uch less useful. HOW USEFUL IS ACCOUNTING INFORMATION? Activity 1. 3 What other sources of information might, say, an investment analayst use in an attempt to gain an impression of the financial position and performance of a business? What kind of information might be gleaned from these sources? Other sources of information available include: ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? meetings with managers of the business; public announcements made by the business; news paper and magazine articles; websites, including the website of the business; adio and TV reports; information-gathering agencies (for example, agencies that assess businesses’ creditworthiness or credit ratings); industry reports; economy-wide reports. These sources can provide information on various aspects of the business, such as new products or services being offered, management changes, new contracts offered or awarded, the competitive environment within which the business operates, the impact of new technology, changes in legislation, changes in interest rates and future levels of inflation. However, the various sources of information identified are not really substitutes for accounting reports. Rather, they are best used in conjunction with the reports in order to obtain a clearer picture of the financial health of a business. Evidence on the usefulness of accounting ? There are arguments and convincing evidence that accounting information is at least perceived as being useful to users. Numerous research surveys have asked users to rank the importance of accounting information, in relation to other sources of information, for decision-making purposes. Generally, these studies have found that users rank accounting information very highly. There is also considerable evidence that businesses choose to produce accounting information that exceeds the minimum requirements imposed by accounting regulations. (For example, businesses often produce a considerable amount of accounting information for managers, which is not required by any regulations. ) Presumably, the cost of producing this additional accounting information is justi? ed on the grounds that users ? nd it useful. Such arguments and evidence, however, leave unanswered the question of whether the information produced is actually used for decision-making purposes, that is: does it affect people’s behaviour? It is normally very dif? cult to assess the impact of accounting on decision making. One situation arises, however, where the impact of accounting information can be observed and measured. This is where the shares (portions of ownership of a business) are traded on a stock exchange. The evidence reveals that, when a business makes an announcement concerning its accounting pro? s, the prices at which shares are traded and the volume of shares traded often change signi? cantly. This suggests that investors are changing their views about the future prospects of the business as a result of this new information becoming available to them and that this, in turn, leads them to make a decision either to buy or to sell shares in the business. Although there is evidence that accounting reports a re perceived as being useful and are used for decision-making purposes, it is impossible to measure just how useful 5 6 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING ccounting reports are to users. As a result we cannot say with certainty whether the cost of producing those reports represents value for money. Accounting information will usually represent only one input to a particular decision and so the precise weight attached to the accounting information by the decision maker and the bene? ts which ? ow as a result cannot be accurately assessed. We shall now go on to see, however, that it is at least possible to identify the kinds of qualities which accounting information must possess in order to be useful. Where these qualities are lacking, the usefulness of the information will be diminished. Providing a service One way of viewing accounting is as a form of service. Accountants provide economic information to their ‘clients’, who are the various users identi? ed in Figure 1. 1. The quality of the service provided is determined by the extent to which the needs of the various user groups have been met. To meet these users’ needs, it can be argued that accounting information should possess certain key qualities, or characteristics: relevance, reliability, comparability and understandability. ? ? Relevance. Accounting information must have the ability to in? uence decisions. Unless this characteristic is present, there is really no point in producing the information. The information may be relevant to the prediction of future events (for example, in predicting how much pro? t is likely to be earned next year) or relevant in helping to con? rm past events (for example, in establishing how much pro? t was earned last year). The role of accounting in con? rming past events is important because users often wish to check the accuracy of earlier predictions that they have made. The accuracy (or inaccuracy) of earlier predictions may help users to judge the accuracy of current predictions. To in? uence a decision, the information must, of course, be available when the decision is being made. Thus, relevant information must be timely. ? Reliability. Accounting should be free from signi? cant error or bias. It should be capable of being relied upon by managers to represent what it is supposed to represent. Though both relevance and reliability are very important, the problem that we often face in accounting is that information that is highly relevant may not be very reliable. Similarly, that which is reliable may not be very relevant. Activity 1. 4 To illustrate this last point, let us assume that a manager has to sell a custom-built machine owned by their business and has recently received a bid for it. This machine is very unusual and there is no ready market for it. What information would be relevant to the manager when deciding whether to accept the bid? How reliable would that information be? The manager would probably like to know the current market value of the machine before deciding whether or not to accept the bid. The current market value would be highly relevant to the final decision, but it might not be very reliable because the machine is unique and there is likely to be little information concerning market values. BUT †¦ IS IT MATERIAL? When seeking to strike the right balance between relevance and reliability, the needs of users should be the overriding consideration. ? ? ? Comparability. This quality will enable users to identify changes in the business over time (for example, the trend in sales revenue over the past ? ve years). It will also help them to evaluate the performance of the business in relation to similar businesses. Comparability is achieved by treating items that are basically the same in the same manner for accounting purposes. Comparability may also be enhanced by making clear the policies that have been adopted in measuring and presenting the information. ? Understandability. Accounting reports should be expressed as clearly as possible and should be understood by those at whom the information is aimed. Activity 1. 5 Do you think that accounting reports should be understandable to those who have not studied accounting? It would be very useful if accounting reports could be understood by everyone. This, however, is unrealistic as complex financial events and transactions cannot normally be expressed in simple terms. It is probably best that we regard accounting reports in the same way that we regard a report written in a foreign language. To understand either of these, we need to have had some preparation. Generally speaking, accounting reports assume that the user not only has a reasonable knowledge of business and accounting but is also prepared to invest some time in studying the reports. Despite the answer to Activity 1. 5, the onus is clearly on accountants to provide information in a way that makes it as understandable as possible to non-accountants. But . . . is it material? ? The qualities, or characteristics, that have just been described will help us to decide whether accounting information is potentially useful. If a particular piece of information has these qualities then it may be useful. However, this does not automatically mean that it should be reported to users. We also have to consider whether the information is material, or signi? cant. This means that we should ask whether its omission or misrepresentation in the accounting reports would really alter the decisions that users make. Thus, in addition to possessing the characteristics mentioned above, accounting information must also cross the threshold of materiality. If the information is not regarded as material, it should not be included within the reports as it will merely clutter them up and, perhaps, interfere with the users’ ability to interpret the ? nancial results. The type of information and amounts involved will normally determine whether it is material. 8 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING Weighing up the costs and benefits Having read the previous sections you may feel that, when considering a piece of accounting information, provided the four main qualities identi? ed are present and it is material it should be gathered and made available to users. Unfortunately, there is one more hurdle to jump. Something may still exclude a piece of accounti ng information from the reports even when it is considered to be useful. Consider Activity 1. 6. Activity 1. 6 Suppose an item of information is capable of being provided. It is relevant o a particular decision; it is also reliable, comparable, can be understood by the decision maker concerned and is material. Can you think of a reason why, in practice, you might choose not to produce the information? The reason that you may decide not to produce, or discover, the information is that you judge the cost of doing so to be greater than the potential benefit of having the information. This cost–benefit issue will limit the extent to which accounting information is provided. In theory, a particular item of accounting information should only be produced if the costs of providing it are less than the bene? s, or value, to be derived from its use. Figure 1. 2 shows the relationship between the costs and value of providing additional accounting information. Figure 1. 2 Relationship be tween costs and the value of providing additional accounting information The benefits of accounting information eventually decline. The cost of providing information, however, will rise with each additional piece of information. The optimal level of information provision is where the gap between the value of the information and the cost of providing it is at its greatest. WEIGHING UP THE COSTS AND BENEFITS The ? ure shows how the value of information received by the decision maker eventually begins to decline. This is, perhaps, because additional information becomes less relevant, or because of the problems that a decision maker may have in processing the sheer quantity of information provided. The costs of providing the information, however, will increase with each additional piece of information. The broken line indicates the point at which the gap between the value of information and the cost of providing that information is at its greatest. This represents the optimal amount of information that can be provided. This theoretical model, however, poses a number of problems in practice. We shall now go on to discuss these. To illustrate the practical problems of establishing the value of information, let us assume that someone has collided with our car in a car park and dented and scraped the paint from one of the doors. We wish to have the dent taken out and the door resprayed at a local garage. We know that the nearest garage would charge ? 250 but believe that other local garages may offer to do the job for a lower price. The only way of ? nding out the prices at other garages is to visit them, so that they can see the extent of the damage. Visiting the garages will involve using some petrol and will take up some of our time. Is it worth the cost of ? nding out the price for the job at the various local garages? The answer, as we have seen, is that if the cost of discovering the price is less than the potential bene? t, it is worth having that information. To identify the various prices for the job, there are several points to be considered, including: ? How many garages shall we visit? ? What is the cost of petrol to visit each garage? ? How long will it take to make all the garage visits? ? At what price do we value our time? The economic bene? of having the information on the price of the job is probably even harder to assess. The following points need to be considered: ? What is the cheapest price that we might be quoted for the job? ? How likely is it that we shall be quoted a price cheaper than ? 250? As we can imagine, the answers to these questions may be far from clear – remember that we have only contac ted the local garage so far. When assessing the value of accounting information we are confronted with similar problems. The provision of accounting information can be very costly; however, the costs are often dif? cult to quantify. The direct, out-of-pocket, costs such as salaries of accounting staff are not really a problem to identify, but these are only part of the total costs involved. There are also less direct costs such as the cost of the user’s time spent on analysing and interpreting the information contained in reports. The economic bene? t of having accounting information is even harder to assess. It is possible to apply some ‘science’ to the problem of weighing the costs and bene? ts, but a lot of subjective judgement is likely to be involved. No one would seriously advocate that the typical business should produce no accounting information. At the same time, no one would advocate that every item of information that could be seen as possessing one or more of the key characteristics should be produced, irrespective of the cost of producing it. The characteristics that in? uence the usefulness of accounting information and which have been discussed in this section and the preceding section are set out in Figure 1. 3. 9 10 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING Figure 1. 3 The characteristics that influence the usefulness of accounting information There are four main qualitative characteristics that influence the usefulness of accounting information. In addition, however, accounting information should be material and the benefits of providing the information should outweigh the costs. Accounting as an information system ? We have already seen that accounting can be seen as the provision of a service to ‘clients’. Another way of viewing accounting is as a part of the business’s total information system. Users, both inside and outside the business, have to make decisions concerning the allocation of scarce economic resources. To ensure that these resources are ef? ciently allocated, users need economic information on which to base decisions. It is the role of the accounting system to provide that information and this will involve information gathering and communication. The accounting information system should have certain features that are common to all valid information systems within a business. These are: ? identifying and capturing relevant information (in this case ? nancial information); ? recording the information collected in a systematic manner; ? analysing and interpreting the information collected; ? reporting the information in a manner that suits the needs of users. The relationship between these features is set out in Figure 1. . ACCOUNTING AS AN INFORMATION SYSTEM Figure 1. 4 The accounting information system There are four sequential stages of an accounting information system. The first two stages are concerned with preparation, whereas the last two stages are concerned with using the information collected. Given the decision-making emphasis of this book, we shall be concerned primarily with the ? nal tw o elements of the process: the analysis and reporting of accounting information. We shall consider the way in which information is used by, and is useful to, users rather than the way in which it is identi? ed and recorded. Ef? ient accounting systems are an essential ingredient of an ef? cient business. When the accounting systems fail, the results can be disastrous. Real World 1. 1 provides an example of a systems failure when two businesses combined and then attempted to integrate their respective systems. Real World 1. 1 Blaming the system FT When Sir Ken Morrison bought Safeway for ? 3. 35bn in March 2004, he almost doubled the size of his supermarket chain overnight and went from being a regional operator to a national force. His plan was simple enough. He had to sell off some Safeway stores – Morrison has to date sold off 184 stores for an estimated ? . 3bn – and convert the remaining 230 Safeway stores into Morrison’s. Sir Ken has about another 50 to sel l. But, nearly fifteen months on, and the integration process is proving harder in practice than it looked on paper. Morrison, once known for its robust performance, has issued four profit warnings in the past ten months. Each time the retailer has blamed Safeway. Last July, it was because of a faster-thanexpected sales decline in Safeway stores. In March – there were two warnings that month – it was the fault of Safeway’s accounting systems, which left Morrison with lower supplier incomes. This month’s warning was put down to higher-than-expected costs from running parallel store systems. At the time of the first warning last July, Simon Procter, of the stockbrokers Charles Stanley, noted that the news ‘has blown all profit forecasts out of the water and visibility is very poor from here on out’. But if it was difficult then to predict where Morrison’s profits were heading, it is impossible now. Morrison itself cannot give guidance. ‘No one envisaged this,’ says Mr Procter. ‘When I made that comment about visibility last July, I was thinking on a twelve-month time frame, not a two-year one. Morrison says the complexity of the Safeway deal has put a ‘significant strain’ on its ability to cope with managing internal accounts. ‘This is impacting the ability of the board to forecast likely trends in profitability and the directors are therefore not currently in a position to provide reliable guidance on the l evel of profitability as a whole,’ admits the retailer. Source: ‘Morrison in uphill battle to integrate Safeway’, Elizabeth Rigby, Financial Times, 26 May 2005. As a footnote to Real World 1. 1, though Morrison had its problems, these were quickly overcome and the Safeway takeover has proved to be a success. 1 12 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING Management accounting and financial accounting Accounting is usually seen as having two distinct strands. These are: ? ? ? management accounting, which seeks to meet the accounting needs of managers; and ? financial accounting, which seeks to meet the accounting needs of all of the other users identi? ed earlier in the chapter (see Figure 1. 1). The difference in their targeted user groups has led to each strand of accounting developing along different lines. The main areas of difference are as follows. ? Nature of the reports produced. Financial accounting reports tend to be general- ? ? ? ? ? purpose, that is, they contain ? nancial information that will be useful for a broad range of users and decisions rather than being speci? cally designed for the needs of a particular group or set of decisions. Management accounting reports, on the other hand, are often speci? c-purpose reports. They are designed with a particular decision in mind and/or for a particular manager. Level of detail. Financial accounting reports provide users with a broad overview of the performance and position of the business for a period. As a result, information is aggregated and detail is often lost. Management accounting reports, however, often provide managers with considerable detail to help them with a particular operational decision. Regulations. Financial accounting reports, for many businesses, are subject to accounting regulations that try to ensure they are produced with standard content and in a standard format. The law and accounting rule makers impose these regulations. As management accounting reports are for internal use only, there are no regulations from external sources concerning the form and content of the reports. They can be designed to meet the needs of particular managers. Reporting interval. For most businesses, ? nancial accounting reports are produced on an annual basis, though some large businesses produce half-yearly reports and a few produce quarterly ones. Management accounting reports may be produced as frequently as required by managers. In many businesses, managers are provided with certain reports on a daily, weekly or monthly basis, which allows them to check progress frequently. In addition, special-purpose reports will be prepared when required (for example, to evaluate a proposal to purchase a piece of equipment). Time orientation. Financial accounting reports re? ect the performance and position of the business for the past period. In essence, they are backward looking. Management accounting reports, on the other hand, often provide information concerning future performance as well as past performance. It is an oversimpli? cation, however, to suggest that ? nancial accounting reports never incorporate expectations concerning the future. Occasionally, businesses will release projected information to other users in an attempt to raise capital or to ? ght off unwanted takeover bids. Even preparation of the routine ? ancial accounting reports typically requires making some judgements about the future, as we shall see in Chapter 3. Range and quality of information. Financial accounting reports concentrate on information that can be quanti? ed in monetary terms. Management accounting also produces such reports, but is also more likely to produce reports that contain information of a non-? nancial n ature, such as physical volume of inventories, number of sales orders received, number of new products launched, physical output per employee and so on. Financial accounting places greater emphasis on the use of objective, veri? ble evidence when preparing reports. Management accounting reports may use information that is less objective and veri? able, but nevertheless provide managers with the information they need. SCOPE OF THIS BOOK We can see from this that management accounting is less constrained than ? nancial accounting. It may draw from a variety of sources and use information that has varying degrees of reliability. The only real test to be applied when assessing the value of the information produced for managers is whether or not it improves the quality of the decisions made. The distinctions between management and ? nancial accounting suggest that there are differences between the information needs of managers and those of other users. While differences undoubtedly exist, there is also a good deal of overlap between these needs. Activity 1. 7 Can you think of any areas of overlap between the information needs of managers and those of other users? We thought of two points: ? ? Managers will, at times, be interested in receiving a historical overview of business operations of the sort provided to other users. Other users would be interested in receiving information relating to the future, such as the planned level of profits and non-financial information such as the state of the sales order book and the extent of product innovations. The distinction between the two areas of accounting re? ects, to some extent, the differences in access to ? nancial information. Managers have much more control over the form and content of information they receive. Other users have to rely on what managers are prepared to provide or what the ? nancial reporting regulations require to be provided. Though the scope of ? ancial accounting reports has increased over time, fears concerning loss of competitive advantage and user ignorance concerning the reliability of forecast data have led businesses to resist providing other users with the same detailed and wide-ranging information available to managers. In the past, it has been argued that accounting systems are far too geared to meeting the regulatory require ments of ? nancial accounting to be able to provide the information most helpful to managers. This is to say that ? nancial accounting requirements have been the main priority and management accounting has suffered as a result. Recent survey evidence suggests, however, that this argument has lost its force. Modern management accounting systems tend to provide managers with information that is relevant to their needs rather than what is determined by external reporting requirements. Financial reporting cycles, however, retain some in? uence over management accounting and managers are aware of expectations of external users (see the reference at the end of the chapter). Scope of this book This book is concerned with ? nancial accounting rather than management accounting. In Chapter 2 we begin by introducing the three principal ? ancial statements: ? the statement of ? nancial position (sometimes known as the balance sheet); ? the income statement (also called the pro? t and loss account); and ? the statement of cash ? ows. 13 14 CHAPTER 1 ? INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING These statements are brie? y reviewed before we go on to consider the statement of ? nancial position in more detail. We shall see that the stat ement of ? nancial position provides information concerning the wealth held by a business at a particular point in time and the claims against this wealth. Included in our consideration of the statement of ? ancial position will be an introduction to the conventions of accounting. Conventions are the generally accepted rules that accountants tend to follow when preparing ? nancial statements. Chapter 3 introduces the second of the major ? nancial statements, the income statement. This provides information concerning the wealth created by a business during a period. In this chapter we shall be looking at such issues as how pro? t is measured, the point in time at which we recognise that a pro? t has been made and the accounting conventions that apply to this particular statement. In the UK and throughout much of the industrialised world, the limited company is the major form of business unit. In Chapter 4 we consider the accounting aspects of limited companies. Although there is nothing of essence that makes the accounting aspects of companies different from other types of private-sector business, there are some points of detail that we need to consider. In Chapter 5 we continue our examination of limited companies and, in particular, consider the framework of rules that must be adhered to when presenting accounting reports to owners and external users. Chapter 6 deals with the last of the three principal ? nancial statements, the statement of cash ? ows. This ? nancial statement is important in identifying the ? nancing and investing activities of the business over a period. It sets out how cash was generated and how cash was used during a period. Reading the three statements will provide information about the performance and position of a business. It is possible, however, to gain even more helpful insights about the business by analysing the statements using ? nancial ratios and other techniques. Combining two ? ures in the ? nancial statements in a ratio and comparing this with a similar ratio for, say, another business, can often tell us much more than just reading the ? gures themselves. Chapters 7 and 8 are concerned with techniques for analysing ? nancial statements. The typical large business in the UK is a group of companies rather than just a single company. A group of companies will exist where one company controls one o r more other companies. In Chapter 9 we shall see why groups exist and consider the accounting issues raised by the combination of companies into groups. The scope of ? nancial reporting has tended to alter over the years. In Chapter 10 we shall consider where ? nancial reporting has come from and how it seems to be developing. Finally, in Chapter 11, we shall consider the way in which larger businesses are managed and how directors and other senior managers are accountable to the owners and to other groups with an interest in the business. Has accounting become too interesting? In recent years, accounting has become front-page news and has been a major talking point among those connected with the world of business. Unfortunately, the attention that accounting has attracted has been for all the wrong reasons. We have seen that investors rely on ? nancial reports to help to keep an eye both on their investment and on the performance of the managers. What, though, if the managers provide misleading ? nancial reports to investors? Recent revelations suggest that the managers of some large businesses have been doing just this. HAS ACCOUNTING BECOME TOO INTERESTING? Two of the most notorious cases have been those of: ? Enron, an energy-trading business based in Texas, which was accused of entering into complicated ? ancial arrangements in an attempt to obscure losses and to in? ate pro? ts; and ? WorldCom, a major long-distance telephone operator in the US, which was accused of reclassifying $3. 9 billion of expenses so as to falsely in? ate the pro? t ? gures that the business reported to its owners (shareholders) and to others. In the wake of these scandals, there was much closer scrutiny by invest ment analysts and investors of the ? nancial reports that businesses produce. This led to further businesses, in both the US and Europe, being accused of using dubious accounting practices to bolster reported pro? ts. Accounting scandals can have a profound effect on all those connected with the business. The Enron scandal, for example, ultimately led to the collapse of the company, which, in turn, resulted in lost jobs and large ? nancial losses for lenders, suppliers and investors. Con? dence in the world of business can be badly shaken by such events and this can pose problems for society as a whole. Not surprisingly, therefore, the relevant authorities tend to be severe on those who perpetrate such scandals. In the US, Bernie Ebbers, the former chief executive of WorldCom, received 25 years in prison for his part in the fraud. Various reasons have been put forward to explain this spate of scandals. Some may have been caused by the pressures on managers to meet unrealistic expectations of investors for continually rising pro? ts, others by the greed of unscrupulous executives whose pay is linked to ? nancial performance. However, they may all re? ect a particular economic environment. Real World 1. 2 gives some comments suggesting that when all appears to be going well with a business, people can be quite gullible and over-trusting. Real World 1. 2 The thoughts of Warren Buffett Warren Buffett is one of the world’s shrewdest and most successful investors. He believes that the accounting scandals mentioned above were perpetrated during the ‘new economy boom’ of the late 1990s when confidence was high and exaggerated predictions were being made concerning the future. He states that during that period You had an erosion of accounting standards. You had an erosion, to some extent, of executive behaviour. But during a period when everybody ‘believes’, people who are inclined to take advantage of other people can get away with a lot. He believes that the worst is now over and that the ‘dirty laundry’ created during this heady period is being washed away and that the washing machine is now in the ‘rinse cycle’. Source: The Times, Business Section, 26 September 2002, p. 25. nisyndication. com. Whatever the causes, the result of these accounting scandals has been to undermine the credibility of ? nancial statements and to introduce much stricter regulations concerning the quality of ? nancial information. We shall return to this issue in later chapters when we consider the ? nancial statements. 15 16 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING The changing face of accounting Over the past 25 years, the environment within which businesses operate has become increasingly turbulent and competitive. Various reasons have been identi? ed to explain these changes, including: ? the increasing sophistication of customers; ? the development of a global economy where national frontiers become less important; ? rapid changes in technology; ? the deregulation of domestic markets (for example, electricity, water and gas); ? increasing pressure from owners (shareholders) for competitive economic returns; ? he increasing volatility of ? nancial markets. This new, more complex, environment has brought new challenges for managers and other users of accounting information. Their needs have changed and both ? nancial accounting and management accounting have had to respond. To meet the changing needs of users there has been a radical review of the kind of information to be reported. The changing business environment has given added impetus to the search for a clear framework and principles upon which to base ? nancial accounting reports. Various attempts have been made to clarify the purpose of ? ancial accounting reports and to provide a more solid foundation for the development of accounting rules. The frameworks and principles that have been developed try to address fundamental questions such as: ? Who are the users of ? nancial accounting information? ? What kinds of ? nancial accounting reports should be prepared and what should they contain? ? How should items (such as pro? t and asset values) be measured? In response to criticisms that the ? nancial reports of some businesses are not clear enough to users, accounting rule makers have tried to improve reporting rules to ensure that the accounting policies of businesses are ore comparable and more transparent, and that they portray economic reality more faithfully. While this has had a generally bene? cial effect, the recent accounting sc andals have highlighted the limitations of accounting rules in protecting investors and others. The internationalisation of businesses has created a need for accounting rules to have an international reach. It can no longer be assumed that users of accounting information relating to a particular business are based in the country in which the business operates or are familiar with the accounting rules of that country. Thus, there has been increasing harmonisation of accounting rules across national frontiers. A more detailed review of these developments is included in Chapter 5. Management accounting has also changed by becoming more outward looking in its focus. In the past, information provided to managers has been largely restricted to that collected within the business. However, the attitude and behaviour of customers and rival businesses have now become the object of much information gathering. Increasingly, successful businesses are those that are able to secure and maintain competitive advantage over their rivals. To obtain this advantage, businesses have become more ‘customer driven’ (that is, concerned with satisfying customer needs). This has led to management accounting information that provides details of customers and the market, such as customer evaluation of services provided and market share. In addition, information about the costs and pro? ts of rival businesses, which can be used as ‘benchmarks’ by which to gauge competitiveness, is gathered and reported. WHAT KINDS OF BUSINESS OWNERSHIP EXIST? To compete successfully, businesses must also ? d ways of managing costs. The cost base of modern businesses is under continual review and this, in turn, has led to the development of more sophisticated methods of measuring and controlling costs. What kinds of business ownership exist? The particular form of business ownership has important implications for accounting purposes and so it is useful to be clear about the main forms of ownership that can arise. There ar e basically three arrangements: ? sole proprietorship; ? partnership; and ? limited company. Each of these is considered below. Sole proprietorship ? Sole proprietorship, as the name suggests, is where an individual is the sole owner of a business. This type of business is often quite small in terms of size (as measured, for example, by sales revenue generated or number of staff employed); however, the number of such businesses is very large indeed. Examples of sole-proprietor businesses can be found in most industrial sectors but particularly within the service sector. Hence, services such as electrical repairs, picture framing, photography, driving instruction, retail shops and hotels have a large proportion of sole-proprietor businesses. The sole-proprietor business is easy to set up. No formal procedures are required and operations can often commence immediately (unless special permission is required because of the nature of the trade or service, such as running licensed premises). The owner can decide the way in which the business is to be conducted and has the ? exibility to restructure or dissolve the business whenever it suits. The law does not recognise the sole-proprietor business as being separate from the owner, so the business will cease on the death of the owner. Although the owner must produce accounting information to satisfy the taxation authorities, there is no legal requirement to produce accounting information relating to the business for other user groups. However, some user groups may demand accounting information about the business and may be in a position to have their demands met (for example, a bank requiring accounting information on a regular basis as a condition of a loan). The sole proprietor will have unlimited liability which means that no distinction will be made between the proprietor’s personal wealth and that of the business if there are business debts that must be paid. Partnership ? A partnership exists where at least two individuals carry on a business together with the intention of making a pro? t. Partnerships have much in common with sole-proprietor businesses. They are usually quite small in size (although some, such as partnerships of accountants and solicitors, can be large). Partnerships are also easy to set up as no formal procedures are required (and it is not even necessary to have a written agreement between the partners). The partners can agree whatever arrangements suit them concerning the ? nancial and management aspects of the business. Similarly, the partnership can be restructured or dissolved by agreement between the partners. 17 18 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING Partnerships are not recognised in law as separate entities and so contracts with third parties must be entered into in the name of individual partners. The partners of a business usually have unlimited liability. Activity 1. 8 What are the main advantages and disadvantages that should be considered when deciding between a sole proprietorship and a partnership? The main advantages of a partnership over a sole-proprietor business are: ? ? ? sharing the burden of ownership; he opportunity to specialise rather than cover the whole range of services (for example, in a solicitors’ practice each partner may specialise in a different aspect of the law); the ability to raise capital where this is beyond the capacity of a single individual. The main disadvantages of a partnership compared with a sole proprietorship are: ? ? the risks of sharing owner ship of a business with unsuitable individuals; the limits placed on individual decision making that a partnership will impose. Limited company ? Limited companies can range in size from quite small to very large. The number of individuals who subscribe capital and become the owners may be unlimited, which provides the opportunity to create a very large-scale business. The liability of owners, however, is limited (hence ‘limited’ company), which means that those individuals subscribing capital to the company are liable only for debts incurred by the company up to the amount that they have agreed to invest. This cap on the liability of the owners is designed to limit risk and to produce greater con? dence to invest. Without such limits on owner liability, it is dif? cult to see how a modern capitalist economy could operate. In many cases, the owners of a limited company are not involved in the day-to-day running of the business and will, therefore, invest in a business only if there is a clear limit set on the level of investment risk. The bene? t of limited liability, however, imposes certain obligations on such companies. To start up a limited company, documents of incorporation must be prepared that set out, among other things, the objectives of the business. Furthermore, a framework of regulations exists that places obligations on limited companies concerning the way in which they conduct their affairs. Part of this regulatory framework requires annual ? ancial reports to be made available to owners and lenders and usually an annual general meeting of the owners has to be held to approve the reports. In addition, a copy of the annual ? nancial reports must be lodged with the Registrar of Companies for public inspection. In this way, the ? nancial affairs of a limited company enter the public domain. With the exception of small companies, there is also a requirement for the annual ? nancial reports to be subject to an audit. This involves an independent ? rm of accountants examining the annual reports and underlying records to see whether the reports provide a true and fair view of the ? ancial health of the company and whether they comply with the relevant accounting rules established by law and by accounting rule makers. All of the large household-name UK businesses (Marks and Spencer, Tesco, Shell, BSkyB, BA, BT, easyJet and so on) are limited companies. Limited companies are considered in more detail in Chapters 4 and 5. HOW ARE BUSINESSES ORGANISED? Activity 1. 9 What are the main advantages and disadvantages that should be considered when deciding between a partnership business and a limited liability company? The main advantages of a partnership over a limited company are: ? ? ? ? the ease of setting up the business; the degree of flexibility concerning the way in which the business is conducted; the degree of flexibility concerning restructuring and dissolution of the business; freedom from administrative burdens imposed by law (for example, the annual general meeting and the need for an independent audit). The main disadvantage of a partnership compared with a limited company is the fact that it is not possible to limit the liability of all of the partners. This book concentrates on the accounting aspects of limited liability companies because this type of business is by far the most important in economic terms. The early chapters will introduce accounting concepts through examples that do not draw a distinction between the different types of business. Once we have dealt with the basic accounting principles, which are the same for all three types of business, we can then go on to see how they are applied to limited companies. It must be emphasised that there are no differences in the way that these three forms of business keep their day-to-day accounting records. In preparing their periodic ? nancial statements, there are certain differences that need to be considered. These differences are not ones of principle, however, but of detail. How are businesses organised? As we have just seen, nearly all businesses that involve more than a few owners and/or employees are set up as limited companies. This means that the ? nance will come from the owners (shareholders) both in the form of a direct cash investment to buy shares (in the ownership of the business) and through the owners allowing past pro? s, which belong to them, to be reinvested in the business. Finance will also come from lenders (banks, for example), who earn interest on their loans and from suppliers of goods and services being prepared to supply on credit, with payment occurring a month or so after the date of supply, usually on an interest-free basis. In larger limited companies, the owners (shareholders) are not involved in the daily running of the business; instead they appoint a board of directors to manage the business on their behalf. The board is charged with three major tasks: ? etting the overall direction and strategy for the business; ? monitoring and controlling its activities; and ? communicating with owners and others connected with the business. Each board has a chairman, elected by the directors, who is responsible for running the board in an ef? cient manner. In addition, each board has a chief executive of? cer (CEO), or managing director, who is responsible for running the business on a dayto-day basis. Occasionally, the roles of chairman and CEO are combined, although it is usually considered to be a good idea to eparate them in order to prevent a single individual having excessive power. We shall come back to consider the relationship between directors and shareholders in more detail in Chapter 4. 19 20 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING The board of directors represents the most senior level of management. Below this level, managers ar e employed, with each manager given responsibility for a particular part of the business’s operations. What is the financial objective of a business? A business is created to enhance the wealth of its owners. Throughout this book we shall assume that this is its main objective. This may come as a surprise, as there are other objectives that a business may pursue that are related to the needs of others associated with the business. For example, a business may seek to provide good working conditions for its employees, or it may seek to conserve the environment for the local community. While a business may pursue these objectives, it is normally set up with a view to increasing the wealth of its owners. In practice, the behaviour of businesses over time appears to be consistent with this objective. Real World 1. 3 reveals how one well-known business has changed its focus in order to improve pro? tability. Real World 1. 3 Profiting from change It speaks volumes for the work done by Kate Swann in turning around W H Smith that when she became chief executive five years ago, the company was being spoken of in similar tems to Woolworths. Comments such as ‘You wouldn’t invent it if you were starting out today’ and ‘What is it actually for these days? ’ were typical among analysts, as they were with Woolies. Indeed, many thought that W H Smith was beyond help and argued that the supermarkets were eating away at sales. Ms Swann has defied the sceptics, achieving an impressive turnaround. The company’s magazine and newspaper distribution division was hived off as a separate entity and new outlets were opened at airports and railway stations – so much so that sales by W H Smith’s travel unit now threaten to overtake those of its traditional high street stores. Lower-[profit-]margin lines, such as CDs and DVDs, have been cleared from the shelves to make way for higher-margin items, such as stationery. The last plank of the strategy was in evidence again in yesterday’s update, in which Ms Swann reported that sales in the nine weeks to January 17 were down by 7 per cent in the high street stores and by 2 per cent in the travel stores, partly because W H Smith is continuing to reduce its exposure to the entertainment category. That was the bad news. The good news was that, although sales overall were down, the reduced focus on entertainment was good for profits. W H Smith made an extra 2p of profit in every ? 1 of sales, compared with the same period a year earlier, a stunning achievement given the deflation hitting the high street. Source: ‘Business big shot’, Ian King, The Times, 27 January 2009, p. 39. nisyndication. com. Within a market economy there are strong competitive forces at work that ensure that failure to enhance owners’ wealth will not be tolerated for long. Competition for the funds provided by the owners and competition for managers’ jobs will normally mean that the owners’ interests will prevail. If the managers do not provide the expected increase in ownership wealth, the owners have the power to replace the existing management team with a new team that is more responsive to owners’ needs. WHAT IS THE FINANCIAL OBJECTIVE OF A BUSINESS? Does this mean that the needs of other groups associated with the business (employees, customers, suppliers, the community and so on) are not really important? The answer to this question is certainly no, if the business wishes to survive and prosper over the longer term. Satisfying the needs of other groups will normally be consistent with increasing the wealth of the owners over the longer term. The importance of customers to a business cannot be overstated. Dissatis? ed customers will take their business to another supplier and this will, in turn, lead to a loss of wealth for the owners of the business losing the customers. Real World 1. 4 provides an illustration of the way in which one business acknowledges the link between customer satisfaction and creating wealth for its owners. Real World 1. 4 Checking out Sainsbury’s objectives J Sainsbury plc is a leading food retailer that recognises the importance of customers to increasing the wealth of the owners (shareholders) as follows: Our objective is to serve customers well and thereby provide shareholders with good, sustainable financial returns. Source: Investor FAQs, www. j-sainsbury. co. uk, 8 January 2009, p. 1. A dissatis? d workforce may result in low productivity, strikes and so forth, which will in turn have an adverse effect on owners’ wealth. Similarly, a business that upsets the local community by unacceptable behaviour, such as polluting the environment, may attract bad publicity, resulting in a loss of customers and heavy ? nes. Real World 1. 5 provides an example of how two businesses responded to potentially damaging allega tions. Real World 1. 5 The price of clothes FT US clothing and sportswear manufacturers Gap and Nike have many of their clothes produced in Asia where labour tends to be cheap. However, some of the contractors that produce clothes on behalf of the two companies have been accused of unacceptable practices. Campaigners visited the factories and came up with damaging allegations. The factories were employing minors, they said, and managers were harassing female employees. Nike and Gap reacted by allowing independent inspectors into the factories. They promised to ensure their contractors obeyed minimum standards of employment. Earlier this year, Nike took the extraordinary step of publishing the names and addresses of all its contractors’ factories on the internet. The company said it could not be sure all the abuse had stopped. It said that if campaigners visited its contractors’ factories and found examples of continued malpractice, it would take action. Nike and Gap said the approach made business sense. They needed society’s approval if they were to prosper. Nike said it was concerned about the reaction of potential US recruits to the campaigners’ allegations. They would not want to work for a company that was constantly in the news because of the allegedly cruel treatment of those who made its products. Source: ‘Fair shares? , Michael Skapinker, Financial Times, 11 June 2005. 21 22 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING It is important to recognise that generating wealth for the owners is not the same as seeking to maximise the current year’s pro? t. Wealth creation is a longer-term concept, which relates not only to this year’s pro? t but to that of future years as well. In the short term, corners ca n be cut and risks taken that improve current pro? t at the expense of future pro? t. Real World 1. 6 gives some examples of how emphasis on short-term pro? t can be damaging. Real World 1. 6 Short-term gains, long-term problems FT Human beings are bad at learning and changing. It takes a good crisis to drive home what may have been staring us in the face. So what in particular are the lessons for all those concerned with saving, investment, borrowing and lending? For many years, under the guise of defending capitalism, we have been allowing ourselves to degrade it. We have been poisoning the well from which we have drawn wealth. We have misunderstood the importance of values to capitalism. We have surrendered to the idea that success is pursued by making as much money as the law allowed without regard to how it was made. Thirty years ago, retailers would b How to cite The Information of Different Needs of Different User Groups, Essay examples

The Trail of Tears

In the early decades of the 19th century the US was rapidly growing and needed to expand towards the south. The need to expand towards the south was because white settlers needed to acquire land where they could cultivate cotton. However, there was an obstacle to their plans, and the barrier was the native Indians who were living in this region. Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Trail of Tears specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The native Indians occupying this region were referred to as the civilized tribes because they were conversant with the western culture. These tribes included Muskogee, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Seminoles, and the Cherokees. The trail of tears was a term that was used to refer to the forced movement and the relocation of these native Indians tribes. In 1830, the Indian removal Act was passed, which officially permitted the federal government to relocate the native Indians. The Act was s upported by Andrew Jackson who was the president during that period. This Act enabled Jackson to negotiate with the Native Americans, and several removal treaties were signed (Bruchac and Magnuson 23). These treaties stipulated that Indians should surrender their lands in exchange for new lands that were to be provided in the western parts of the United States. Some Indian tribes voluntarily signed the treaties, while others were coerced to do so, but at the end of it all the tribes had to relocate. The Choctaw were the first to be relocated in 1831, approximately 4000 members of this tribe were removed, and they left in groups of about five hundred to two thousand individuals. During their relocation, hundreds of them died from exhaustion, exposure and diseases. These deaths made the entire communities and families to perish. During the relocation, some Choctaw Indians remained behind. Those who stayed behind were swindled and their property taken, forcing them to leave (Hausman 95). The Choctaw Indians occupied the regions that are currently Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. The treaties that resulted in the reduction of Choctaw territory to eleven thousand acres were signed in 1901. The remaining territory was granted to the federal government by the treaty of the dancing rabbit. The Choctaws were removed in three sessions that begun in 1831 and ended in 1833. Their relocation coincided with a severe winter that subject the Choctaw to snow, sleet, and flash floods. Advertising Looking for term paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More They also faced a food shortage that further deteriorated their condition. The relocation of the Choctaw was also affected by adverse weather conditions that blocked rivers with ice, halting transportation for several weeks. This prompted the American authorities, which were charged with the relocation, to introduce food rationing. This saw the Choctaws give n one turnip, two cups of warm water, and a small portion of boiled maize, which they were supposed to eat the whole day. When the Choctaw eventually reached the Little Rock after being transported by government wagons, it is thought that one of their chiefs wrote that the relocation was a â€Å"trail of tears and death† (Rozema 79) The next Indian tribe to be relocated was the Creek, which did not leave peacefully. After signing a relocation treaty in 1832, the Creek put up an armed resistance in between 1836 and 1837. Many Creeks also lost their lives because of disease and exposure to other health hazards. The Creeks were forced to go to Georgia, but approximately twenty thousand of them remained in Alabama. Creek’s tribal governments were banned by the state, and subjected to the state laws. The Creeks who remained in Alabama had their land divided into allotments with every one of them getting his share. They were then given an option of either selling their shar e of land and joining other Creeks in the west, or remaining in Alabama and conforming to the laws of the state. Squatters and land speculators started to deceive Creeks out of their land, leading to violence that eventually culminated to the Creek war of 1836. In order to end this violence, the American military arrested over fourteen thousand Creeks and relocated them to Oklahoma, and this saw approximately two thousand five hundred people make the journey in chains (Rozema 80). Owing to their small number, the Chickasaw tribe was easily relocated to their new lands. In addition, the Chickasaw were dully compensated by the United States government for their land that was annexed in Mississippi river. When the Chickasaw reached the Indian Territory, they integrated with Choctaws, after mistrusting one another for many years. This social integration made these two tribes become one nation. Approximately five hundred Chickasaw members lost their lives to small pox during the reloca tion. However, historians have maintained that the relocation of Cherokees was the most tormenting. This is because militia men from Georgia invaded the tribe and burnt homes, scattered families, and destroyed crops. The brutal relocation of the Cherokee tribe was also influenced by the gold rush that took place in Georgia in 1829. Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Trail of Tears specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More People involved in the gold trade started to invade Cherokee lands, and they also pressured the state government in Georgia to implement the Indian relocation Act of 1802. The land case between the Cherokee nation and gold speculators was taken to the Supreme Court, but the Supreme Court ruled in favor of gold speculators. The court claimed that the Cherokee were not an independent nation (Rozema 81). The remaining tribe was gathered by federal troops and sent to concentration camps. In these cam ps, diseases spread and ended up killing twenty five percent of the entire tribe. Members of the Seminole tribe were relocated in 1832, after being deceived by agents from the federal government into signing a relocation treaty. When the government authorities tried to enforce this deceptive treaty, the Seminoles fought against it, which led to the outbreak of a war in 1835 that was referred to as the second Seminole War. The war was fought between the Seminole tribe and the U.S soldiers in Florida. The war was sparked by the decision of Seminole Indians helped by some blacks to attack United Sates troops marching to Fort King. There were one hundred and ten soldiers in this match, yet only three survived the attack. This made the United States army in Florida realize that the Seminoles were hell-bent on resisting the relocation, and as a result they prepared for war. The Seminole attacked and looted a train that was supplying goods to the military. They also burnt several planta tions where they were joined by black slaves who worked there (Rozema 82). However, by 1859, the last group of Seminoles Indians had been relocated to the western United States in chains. Historians have not accurately determined the tribe from which the phrase â€Å"The trail of tears† came from. However, it has been speculated that the phrase might have originated from the Cherokees or Choctaws. Despite the origin of the phrase, all Indians who were relocated from their homelands went through a lot of pain and suffering. The relocation exercise was completed by the year 1837 and it saw approximately forty-six thousand Native Americans, who occupied states in the south-east, sent away and leave behind their homes. Advertising Looking for term paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This created twenty five million acres of land that was given to white settlers. Andrew Jackson strongly supported the relocation of Native Americans from their home land, and he was responsible for nine of the eleven treaties that removed Native Americans from their lands. Historians have maintained that the Indian tribes signed the treaties in order to obtain certain advantages. Their first aim was pleasing the federal government, with the hope that they would be allowed to keep a portion of their land. Secondly, the Indians tribes signed the treaties in order to evade harassment from whites (Rozema 82). The Supreme Court in 1923 ruled that Indians could live in lands within America, but they were not allowed to get title deeds. This decision was driven by the fact that the Supreme Court perceived the right of Indians to own land to be subordinate to the right of the United States government to discover it. This decision posed a threat to the right of owning land among American Indians, and the Chickasaws, Cherokees, and the Creeks responded by coming up with policies that prevented sale of land to the United States government. This move was aimed at protecting the little land that had remained in their possession before it was taken away. The Indian tribes initially attempted to protect their land using non-violent means. One of the techniques they used was adoption of American practices like western education, keeping of slaves, and large-scale farming. This is the reason why these Indian tribes were referred to as the civilized tribes (Burgan 18). Works Cited Bruchac, Joseph and Diana Magnuson. The Trail of Tears. New York: Random House, 1999. Print. Burgan, Michael. The Trail of Tears. Minneapolis, MN: Compass Point Books, 2001.Print. Hausman, Blake M. Riding the Trail of Tears. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2011. Print. Rozema, Vicki. Voices from the Trail of Tears. Winston-Salem, NC: J. F. Blair, 2003. Print. This term paper on The Trail of Tears was written and submitted by user Josue Vega to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.